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Mol Brain Res 1996;38:77-84. Assoc Psychophysiol Stud Sleep. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. Psychophysiology 1968;4:311-23. No PGO potentials have been found in rats (70). University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. WebDream theories developed by Freud suggest that dreams are psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example. This neural activity is then interpreted by the brain as an internal activity. The heart rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure rises. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Psychoanalysis considers dreams as an important window to the unconscious world, what makes dream interpretation a crucial factor in psychonalytic diagnosis and treatment. Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. 99. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:203-6. Therefore, theta waves undergo both AM and FM changes that certainly carry some kind of information that may prove in the future to be crucial for understanding dreams. 129. However, we all know that many dreams are not emotional at all. Desynchronized sleep has been identified in many mammals and birds (16) but below the birds only in crocodiles brief periods of an equivalent phase (eye movements, low voltage electro-oscillograms and cervical hypotonia) seem to occur (17). Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophanes, nearly 2,400 years ago, were opposed to the prevailing view of the phantastikon, that is, mystic apparitions, and to the premonitory character of dreams as their main characteristics. Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) do not take into consideration that a single object or a brief key fact or image occurring in the day preceding a given dream may be enough to trigger an entire dreamed "story" related to it (120). According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). (1996) and Braun et al. 33. Recordings of the electrical activity of the brain, which we will refer to as electro-oscillograms, reveal specific patterns that express the phases of sleep in several central regions of the brain, including the phase during which most oniric activity takes place, the desynchronized or paradoxical sleep. It is likely that even strong stimuli may be ineffective in producing an arousal during sleep if they are trivial, whereas light stimulation containing relevant information may be highly efficient. Nature, 2002, submitted. Vogel GW, Foulkes D, Trosman H. Ego functions and dreaming during sleep onset. An analysis of the supraspinal influences acting on motoneurons during sleep in the unrestrained cat. In cats, during movements related to dreams such hyperpolarization is reinforced by presynaptic inhibition of afferents to motoneurons. It is most likely an elementary brain activity in homeotherms and thus, if dreaming has a function, it probably plays a similar role in the human brain and in nonhuman brains as well. Kluger J. Another fancy hypothesis is the one that proposes that we dream to forget, in order to delete "unwanted" information by reverse learning or unlearning (118). A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur for the most part involuntarily during certain stages of sleep. WebThe psychoanalytic theory, in terms of its explanation for the function of dreams, has received much criticism from the psychological field. WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological Later, theta waves were also found in rats during both attentive wakefulness and desynchronized sleep (19,30,31,74-76). Brain Res Bull 1992;28:479-84. Much experimental work is needed before a convincing function can be ascribed to the fascinating physiological phenomenon that is dreaming. Some scientists take the position that dreaming probably has no function. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. It may be more appropriate to explain the latter authors' results by reasoning that dreams are originated in memorized information and are, accordingly, closely related to events occurring before sleep. In cats, cortical electro-oscillograms are also desynchronized but in the hippocampus theta waves (that will be later described) predominate. 83. Hodes R, Dement WC. Wiley-Interscience, New york 1990:535-583. Attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past. Changes in hippocampal gene expression associated with the induction of long-term potentiation. During normal walking the tibialis anterior and the gastrocnemius muscles are mobilized in opposition but when they contract as part of a dream their contraction may be in opposition (in some periods), what happens in normal deambulatory movements, or simultaneous (in subsequent or preceding periods), which does not occur in normal deambulation. 57. 10. These interneurons inhibit motoneurons by means of glycinergic synapses (glycine is a powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter), as shown by Soja et al. Frequency clearly increases and becomes regular, as compared with the trend before oniric activity. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995;28:385-96. The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. Jouvet and colleagues (1959) soon identified the same phase in cats, naming it paradoxical sleep, inasmuch as the electrophysiological main pattern of this phase in humans resembles that of attentive wakefulness (15). Villablanca J. Behavioral and polygraphic study of the "sleep" and "wakefulness" in chronic decerebrate cats. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. Baldissera F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Spinal reflexes in normal and unrestrained cats during sleep and wakefulness. Ribeiro S, Goyal V, Mello CV, Pavlides C. Brain gene expression during REM sleep depends on prior waking experience. During the nineteenth century several physiologists and neuropsychiatrists tried to understand the mechanisms and meaning of dreams. J Neurophysiol 1954;17:532-57. Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. 43. During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. While humans dream around 100 minutes every night, cats exhibit signs of dreaming during nearly 200 minutes per day. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. Axons from neurons of the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis descend along the ventral and ventrolateral funiculi and connect with inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord (55,56). The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). On Sleep and Dreams. 67. As any information consciously identified, a dream triggers a specific behavior, that we call an oniric behavior. Peyrethon J, Dusan-Peyrethon D. tude polygraphique du cycle veille-sommeil chez trois genres de rptiles. In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) Gottesman C, Gandolfo G, Zernicki B. Magoun HW, Rhines R. An inhibitory mechanism in the bulbar reticular formation. As a prevailing concept even today, dreams were considered premonitory, messages from the dead and mystical warnings. the apparitions. Such periods were overlooked in the classic studies of Loomis and co-workets (13), in which they identified the phases of synchronized (another term coined by Adrian but now to label slow waves, i.e., potentials with a low frequency and a high voltage) sleep. Table 1 shows the results of some of such studies, including our data concerning nearly 2,000 dreaming episodes recorded from rats. The narrower is the angle of rotation, the lower is the recorded potential, which happens when attention is being directed to a very small part of the object or when the object is very near. This statement is incorrect, inasmuch as electro-oscillograms during both states in humans are not so similar as to confound an observer and in rats we have found that theta waves that occur in both attentive wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep are largely different. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. Energy conservation theory posits that the main function of sleep is to reduce a person's energy demand during part of the day and night when it is least efficient to hunt for food. It is usually taken for granted that PGO potentials are essential manifestations for the electrophysiological identification of dreaming activity but such view is not well founded. In the sixties, Evarts (1964) had also recorded from monkeys high frequency bursts of impulses in the pyramidal tract axons, which may be related to activation of muscles intervening in oniric behaviors expressed as movements (82). The meaning of dreams is therefore still an unsolved problem. The hypothesis has been recently put forward by Revonsuo (2000) that the function of dreaming is to simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance (111). 46. Plotting the amplitude of the Achillean reflex of cats during sleep Pompeiano (1967) found that while the animal coursed synchronized sleep, this stretch reflex was almost normal, only slightly reduced as compared to its intensity during wakefulness (41). 44. Kubin L, Davies RO, Pack AI. 23. Jouvet M. Programmation gntique itrative et sommeil paradoxal. The reason for such vegetative adjustments is obviously that the nervous tissue is metabolically very demanding, so much so that 20% of the inspired oxygen goes to the nervous system. 78. 74. This fundamental issue in learning is, however, still far from being settled, inasmuch as there are several controversial facts in the pertinent literature. Am J Physiol 1937;118:8-14. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan For sure, many even trivial daily events represent a threat to anyone and are certainly used as subjects for dreams not necessarily because of their emotional component. Simes CA, Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C. Correlation between concomitant theta waves in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the hippocampus, thalamus and neocortex during dreaming in rats. Bookshelf The discovery of REM sleep kickstarted a flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of the sleeping brain. 13. The main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is, the standing posture. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. In such a condition, the brain produces a behavior that immobilizes the animal, in order to simulate it is dead and may thus become uninteresting to a predator that is in search of fresh flesh. Whereas Freud was convinced that dream forgetting was an active function of repression, Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) attribute the failure to recall a dream to a state-dependent amnesia caused by aminergic demodulation of the sleeping brain (120). Researchers working on dream usually do not believe that dreaming may occur in non-human animals, probably due to religious and philosophical reasons but also to a great mistake, i.e., that dreaming is a high level mental activity, such as doing mathematics, but it is not. The caudalmost portion of this system (then labeled descending hypnogenic cholinergic) comprises the ventral and dorsal Gudden's nuclei, whose stimulation with carbachol triggered sleep in nearly 20 seconds. Although it has not been shown that the alpha-coeruleus nuclei are lesioned in these patients, it is tempting to consider that their lesion underlies such sleep disturbance. In rats we found similar potentials in the amygdala as related to olfactory dreams, expressed as rostrum movements (32). Ann Rev Psychol 1990;41:557-884. Cole AJ, Saffen DW, Baraban JM, Worley PF. J Biol Chem 1995;270:24361-9. 92. (57). With Darwin (1965), we are fully convinced that "at least birds and mammals do dream" (6). 73. General Learning Press, 1970. Vertes RB, Eastman KE. This theory is supported by the fact that the body has decreased metabolism by up to 10% during sleep. There is experimental evidence that eye movements are generated near the nucleus of the abducent nerve but Pompeiano (1967) does not agree with this view (10,41). His personal oracle, however, disagreed and convinced him that his dreams were warnings from the gods. Above the transection, synchronized and desynchronized sleep keep occurring but without eye movements. As a matter of fact, manifestations of dreaming have been identified in many species, including chickens, chimpanzees, cats, rats and in some birds. 38. 56. 52. 134. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. Dreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. Psychosomat Med 1975;37:147-59. In both instances sleep evolved according to the phases of synchronized and then of desynchronized sleep, during which eye movements always occurred. 69. Neurosci Conscious. Green JD, Arduini A. Hippocampal activity in arousal. 115. Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. WebPsychoanalytic theory of dream: Advanced by Freud, the psychoanalytic theory of dream stands as the most valid and fundamental among all the theories of dream. 122. Revonsuo A. 131. Braun et al. Exptl Neurol 1963;8:93-111. Schmidt MH, Sakai K, Valatrix JL, Jouvet M. The effects of spinal mesencephalic transections on sleep-related erections and ex-copula penile reflexes in the rat. Some of his statements, hereby reproduced in a simplified form from his book on sleep and dreams, briefly illustrate his contribution to the study of this subject: "All creatures that have four limbs and are sanguine (mammals) display signs that they dream while asleep. 59. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Candia O, Favale E, Guissani A, Rossi G. Blood pressure during natural sleep and during sleep induced by electrical stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation. Studi Psicologici e Clinici di un Alienista. In the past, most civilizations boasted having wise people who could tell the meaning of dreams if conveniently paid for that, a fancy profession that still has its counterparts in modern nations. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. Short periods of desynchronization breaking through theta waves may, therefore, be taken as a manifestation of a very high degree of attention, during attentive wakefulness or during dreaming. physiological function. On the functional role of consciousness. 26. Some authors have not been able to find changes in heart rate and respiration during desynchronized sleep (61) but there are striking demonstrations that blood pressure is reduced (figure 6), attaining values as low as 60 mmHg of systolic pressure; heart rate is also reduced and ventilation decreases (38,62). Heart rate decreases down to nearly 150 bpm 1 or 2 seconds following the cessation of eye movements. Been found in rats ( 70 ) Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter,... F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Spinal reflexes in normal and unrestrained cats sleep! Psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example with Darwin ( 1965 ), as shown by Soja et.... Induction of long-term potentiation however, we are fully convinced that `` at least birds and mammals do dream (. 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